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Re-feudalisation

The term "re-feudalisation" is on Jürgen Habermas's Structural Transformation of the Public returned (Habermas [1962] 1990).

In his social theory Interim assessment of the crisis of financial market capitalism does Sighard Neckel (2010, p. 7) the term in order to analyze processes of re-feudalisation in three levels:

1) in normative terms, ie in relation to the justification of Procedure of the financial market capitalism;

2 ) with respect to the organization of economic processes and the status of prevailing on the financial-economic management groups; can

3) in terms of social structure, recognize that a transformation of social inequality, which show clear signs of feudalism.

1) In normative terms, ie in relation to the justification of Procedure of the Financial Market Capitalism: The re-feudalisation of values - of performance to success
The "Spirit of Capitalism and the Protestant ethic (Weber), associated with need respite and long-term orientation (saving capitalism) was replaced in financial capitalism by the culture of success at any cost associated with personal status and conspicuous consumption. The concept of meritocracy is shelved. One prefers to speak of "personal responsibility" and "own initiative", meaning no personal benefits attributable to direct immediate success. Salaries and bonuses are prices to be determined by scarcity, not by justice of performance (how a pop star). This is capitalism and civil society have become opposites, they require no longer mutually exclusive. In the admiration of the demonstrative made luxury consumption meet, however, the values of the bottom and the top layers.

2) In regard to the organization of economic processes and the status of prevailing on the financial-economic management groups: re-feudalisation of economic organization - the millions of Prince
Modern society knows see themselves as no class privileges. Status differences are only legitimated by differences in performance. The new managerial class, which provides for the shareholder value of the services is necessary, it forces patients to "fiscal livings", the bonus payments are in fact the reference to pensions equal. Quite different than the Schumpeterian entrepreneur, the "pioneer of social and political revolutions, acts of the modern manager as a" property without risk, "knows no bounds in pursuit of his selfish goals and mercilessly exploited the moral hazard. As the sequence of stock market crashes, shows the financial industry can almost smooth externalize their own risks, because the bank bailouts pay so the taxpayers - the neo-lives at the expense of state-guaranteed Security.

3) In terms of social structure, recognize that a transformation of social inequality, which makes clear signs of feudalism.
The common assumption that capitalism corresponds to the bourgeois way of life is belied by the increasing globalization of the markets. Refeudalisierte of contemporary capitalism is best understood as a paradox of capitalist modernization. For the same process of economic development, which can grow to immense wealth, includes an increasing number of people from this. This forms the social distribution of income, power and recognition to be established that the original pre-modern patterns of social order are similar. This is reflected in the privatization of formerly public goods, in the marketization of economic relations and the consolidation of power by oligopolistic corporate structures. As in Habermas' analysis of the bourgeois public a breakdown of the separation of the spheres of government and civil society must be held. The crisis shows the nationalization of the economy that accompanied the economization of the state in step. The re-feudalisation

the social structure is reflected in the return of social dichotomies. This is characterized by the polarization and hardening of the differences between the rapture elite and the precariat the lowest layers. The increasing risk of poverty corresponds to the decrease of social upward mobility. The top layer foreclosure rules through self-recruitment, in particular by the social inequality in education. Social inequality today means no longer a system based on status and performance of differentiated social stratification, but a dichotomy of inclusion and exclusion, which is mutated to a stationary model. Little surprise, then, is that the aristocratic lifestyles in the media, portrayed as contemporary.

Source:

Sighard Neckel: re-feudalisation the economy: The structural transformation of capitalist economy. MPIfG Working Paper 10 / 6 Max-Planck-Institute for the Study of Societies, Cologne. July 2010. ISSN 1864-4341 (Print) ISSN 1864-4333 (internet).
http://www.mpifg.de/pu/workpap/wp10-6.pdf

Jürgen Habermas: Structural Transformation of the Public: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society. Frankfurt aM: Suhrkamp 1990 [1962].

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who has nothing which is taken in ...

According to an analysis by the Institute for Fiscal Studies (IFS), the poorest of the poor, especially families with children who are the biggest losers from the British government announced austerity.

"The IFS said the Poorest 10% of families would loose over 5% of their income as a result of the budget compared with a loss of less than 1% for non-pensioner households without children in the richest 10% of households. It added that the budget contrasted with the "progressive" plans for 2010-14 inherited from Labour, under Which deny the richest 10% of households bore the brunt of the cuts. "

government spokesman for this analytical result and answer the test results with wishful thinking; according to the motto: Where it goes well for the rich, always a few crumbs fall off more for the poor

It is believed that the Equalities impact assessment , as indicated by the Equalities Act . from 2010 called, was not carried out by the government. There are therefore expected to announced lawsuits against the state budget.

Larry Elliott, Vikram Dodd: Poor families bear brunt
of coalition's austerity drive .
George Osborne's budget Described as 'clearly regressive' by respected fiscal think tank.
The Guardian, Wednesday 25 August 2010.

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European austerity is a threat to economic growth. The dangers of deflation are thus not banned, nor are the structural problems of the aging of the population solved.

Moody's met en garde contre les politiques de rigueur . to pursue Le Monde, 23/08/2010

instead a policy of economic reason, the German government succumbs to the temptation to make on the cheap demagoguery. What is required is, extricating loss-EU member countries from their structural trap and spur economic growth. Instead, voters will be set to catch and put these countries, the austerity of the gun to his chest, which can compound the misery just continued. Indication of this political demagoguery, the term " PIGS" is. The acronym 'Who would be surprised, it has already brought to a Wikipedia article keyword, although this term from the long market players nothing more than a list of countries with the negative connotation of "state debt" and is more in a slang dictionary is as an encyclopedia. " casino capitalism " however, over what term it back to scientific work of Susan Strange, Michel Albert, and most recently Hans-Werner gives meaning and on a comparison of JM Keynes, it has only made a formidable fighting debate, for the time being drinzubleiben in the encyclopedia. Again, an indication of the political impact of these oh-so neutral site All the World Encyclopedia.

The current policy failures is reminiscent of the Versailles Peace Treaty, where against all economic reason Germany by the victorious powers, also forced for purely demagogic electoral considerations was to accept excessive reparations. At the same time had been without the economic interdependence of the German economy to provide to those of the rest of Europe into account, made it politically impossible that Germany was unable to provide these economic benefits at all. JM Keynes was one of the first who had publicly denounced in his book, that political bullshit. - Where are we today with Europe?

John Maynard Keynes: war and peace. The economic consequences of the Treaty of Versailles. from the English by MJ Bonn and C. Brinkman. Ed. with an introduction and Dorothea Hauser. Berenberg, Berlin 1 Ed Sept. 2006. ISBN 3-937834-12-5. 13-978-3-937834-12-2.

" The boom, not the slump, is the right time for austerity at the Treasury. "

- John Maynard Keynes (1937) Collected Writings

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wrong track, get rid of the labor theory of value without having to examine scientifically must

" Marx had derived his theory of crisis in basic assumptions of the labor theory of value. I know of no empirical studies of the current economic system, based on an application of the labor theory of value. Whose validity we must leave undecided, "said Jürgen Habermas in

. The Left responds Jürgen Habermas (Frankfurt am Main 1968, p. 9f.).

Voilà! Such is called empirical study exists:

Nils Fröhlich: The timeliness of the labor theory of value. Theoretical and empirical aspects. Metropolis Verlag Marburg 2009th ISBN 978-3-89518-756-8.

characteristic of critics of the AWT that come with the empirical, which is naively positivist condensed view of empirical research and testing a theory. This is probably due to the fact that the critics who use the argument that such a business still had not got anything to entertain and that is why some very bold opinions about it.

The lack of empirical verification can usually work objected to specific issues related to socio-economic research, Habermas in relation to the declaration of the occurrence of crises in capitalism. In the background may often be an instrumental view of theory, which could be combined with a casually pragmatic theory of truth. In this way, is the frequent use of the adjective "current" understanding, namely that a given event (a crisis or a change of government, ... etc.), economic theory should be chosen according to whether they fit the particular occasion. "News" here means as much as "useful", at least as much as "theoretically interesting" or even "politically useful", be it for legitimacy, it is for the disposal of instructions.

In the same context there but still at a very different argument, not the empirical testing (although empirical verifiability is tacitly assumed), but the argument raised question of whether Marx to his knowledge, intent, or to his political intentions (such as the would critique of capitalism) necessarily requires the AWT. So had Joan Robinson in 1942 sums up the fruits of their first "capital" studies like this:

"As I see it, the conflict between Volume I and Volume III is a conflict between mysticism and common sense. In volume III common sense triumphs but must still pay lip-service to mysticism in its verbal formulations.” – “I hope that it will become clear, in the following pages, that no point of substance in Marx’ argument depends upon the labour theory of value. Voltaire remarked that it is possible to kill a flock of sheep by witchcraft if you give them plenty of arsenic at the same time. The sheep, in this figure, may well stand for the complacent apologists of capitalism; Marx’s penetrating insight and bitter hatred of oppression supply the arsenic, while the labour theory of value provide the incantations.”

(Joan Robinson: An Essay on Marxian Economics. London, Basingstoke 2. Aufl. 1966 (zuerst 1942).
This Robinson goes so far that it reduces the content of the AWT entirely on the political value element or the social critique.

not quite so far has gone Karl Popper, he pursued, however, the same trend, the function of the theoretical core of AWT downplay possible or to seek to diminish:

"I think the theory of value Marx, usually with the Marxists as well as the opponents of Marxism as a cornerstone of Marxist is building for a fairly insignificant part (...) ... would improve the position of Marxism, only if one could show that its major historical and political lessons independently develop such a controversial theory can "

(Karl R. Popper: The Open Society and Its Enemies Vol II:... False Prophets - Hegel, Marx and the consequences 6th edition Munich 1980 (first 1944). p. 209)

a naive positivism Poppers shown on this occasion that he "controversies," a theory implicitly considers a flaw. Is not a theory, the more it is challenged, tested all the more, it has withstood so more and more content than other tests of?

All the above mentioned critics say those are not the core problem of any theory of value see the day when the concept of economic value, as in a standard way David Ricardo in his Adam Smith's criticism of his suffering had ways. Apparently all these critics maintain an economic theory is conceivable, the exclusion of those thorny question entirely. The omissions, which were about Robinson in their above publication on its own, make it clear that it completely in the so "dogmatic" questions such as the theoretical relationship between exchange value and use value alongside groped (Habermas in their wake), so when about science described as a source of value, just because they may increase the physical productivity (much like an increase in fertility of soils in agriculture). Is it perhaps that some critics of today (as many economists after the so-called "marginalist revolution") is completely at the "theoretical mind" for such abstract issues going on?

based Apparently, the negative attitude of the critics of the AWT simply that they not only offered the solution of Marx did not like, but the very fact issue raised position.

so it is with this theory historically most inexperienced economists and some lay people to the philosophy:

Hinz. philosophei are also for the?
Kunz. what is it? Sun'll say it.
Hinz. it is instructive, Hinz Dazs not Kunz and Kunz was not Hinze.
Kunz. philosophei'm not for.

(CLAUDIUS (1775) 1, 207), and references. Grimm's dictionary)

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"The relevance of the labor theory of value" value freedom

Nils Fröhlich: The timeliness of the labor theory of value. Theoretical and empirical aspects. Metropolis Verlag Marburg 2009th ISBN 978-3-89518-756-8.

With this book raised the question of whether the AWT (labor theory of value) is currently still or again. But already the question is wrongly put. Within a science it is fundamentally not about whether a theory is current or obsolete, alive or dead, but whether it represents true knowledge.

the misleading way to put the problem in a way minimum can be traced down to Joseph A. Schumpeter.

"It should therefore be clear, not only was that from the Marxist sense whatsoever, the validity of marginal utility theory of value (which they opposed) to question, as they did in the beginning, but that it also incorrectly is the labor theory of value to call 'false'. In any case, it is dead and buried "

(Joseph A. Schumpeter: Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy A. Franke: 6th edition Tübingen 1987 (UTB 172; first: 1942) ISBN 3-7720-1298 -... 1, p. 48f.)

Schumpeter's quest, the marginal utility theory more general than the theory over additional set of AWT and thus "the more valuable parts" to integrate them (similar to later, the official "Keynesianism" certain ideas of Keynes in the neoclassical theory incorporated and thus rendered harmless), it has one side of the Schumpeter-test, the AWT to . cope The other side is its simple polemic turn, explain it too easy to be dead. The AWT is "out" just as beautiful today says. Is this meant merely as a statement of the history of science fact? Or intelligence-logical argument? Or even "evidence"? Here one may assume that it will be all in one and are in line with the overall purpose intended to make you forget an unpopular theory.

"Economic theories do not die, they just forgot."

(Jürgen Niehans: Thünen Lecture classical myth as a national economic Journal of Economics and Social Sciences, 109, 1989, p. 1-17...)

This repeated Niehans only insights, as they had previously Keynes and James Kenneth Galbraith expressed in terms of the more sociological than scientific evidence-logical character of the paradigm shift in economics and economic policy.

"But, at best, change in economics has been reluctant and reluctantly accepted. Those who benefit from the status quo resist change, as Thurs economists who have a vested interest in what has always been taught and believed "

(John Kenneth Galbraith. Economics in Perspective: A Critical History Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston 1987... misdirected may describe ISBN 0-395-35572-9. p. 2)

so aptly Niehans the thesis a scientific sociological fact, it serves as a metatheoretical judge the quality of knowledge of scientific theories. If the economics as an empirical science or can be addressed as an experience or science of reality, at least puts the naive layman and expert judgments generally the economic buyer Correspondence theory of truth based, ie a statement is held to be true, whether it agrees with reality or the facts in question. Finally, a newspaper reader wants to know what in his world, in which he intends to continue to live economically is going on. For economists, however, the tendency has prevailed to judge a statement will be true if the prevailing opinion among them, that the mainstream thinking of vehicles. In practice, this has the result that they are based on a consensus theory of truth: As a true, which recognize the authority of science as "true" and what can be logically attributed to it. A corollary is that the inquiry lawful Relationships of cause and effect is replaced by the scholastic exercises of mathematical function models, and empirical truth as a criterion is replaced by the aesthetic criteria of formal elegance. Hans Albert aptly called this " Modellplatonismus .

It was left to Joachim Weimann, to be collected in the academic economics dominating bad practice to explicitly model wissenschaftsmethodologischen model.

"Given the assumption that there is a scientific community neoclassical economists and that this has with the general equilibrium theory a paradigmatic theory T requires it is the last of the assumption of a specific cognitive interest with respect to which the T-fixed assumptions about the motives of rational action are functional. . Such interest in knowledge could be to demonstrate the basic function and the optimality of decentralized allocation systems "(p. 260)

(Joachim Weimann: reflections on theory concept in economics Journal of Economics and Social Sciences, 109 (2), 1989. , p. 233-264.)

science is not like pop music, especially the lives or dies, depending on whether the Board holds for this fan club. And scientific knowledge is not a new way to decide whether their empirical truth, according to statutes

complained How Heiner Flassbeck, it herrrscht just among economists, the prevailing Zitierkartell respectively.

"As the Science is dominated of course by the ruling opinion in science, measure the required" scientific "primarily interested in the publications of the staff of the Institute in prestigious scientific journals, the whole print mostly mainstream, because they define it .

(Heiner Flassbeck: Glass Bead Game or economics - The Decline of Economics leaves. for German and international politics, Issue 9 / 2004, S.1071-1079.)

With what conservative-authoritarian results practically anything works, you can splendid study on Wikipedia, which has indeed nothing more as an encyclopedia made while the prevailing opinion to represent each faithfully than authoritative. The question of empirical truth is replaced by the question of the greater authority of a source. As if Fallibilisten as Hans Albert had never criticized the dogmatic "solution" of Munchausen trilemma.

(Michael Schmidt-Salomon: The "Münchhausentrilemma" or: Is it possible, on your own to draw bootstraps? )

One has however to the author Nils happy, that he may have chosen poorly with the title of the hanger. The fact that he explicated but in contrast to mainstream representatives not only an economic theory but also verified empirically. That alone is important. Because

"Who really forces us to declare the pseudo-causal thinking of the neo-classicism as the only possible form of theoretical analysis?"

(Hans Albert.. The logical character of theoretical economics Yearbook of Economics and Statistics, 171, 1959 p. 32)

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"value freedom" or "value judgments freedom" is the philosophy of science, the need for testimony to be free from a positive or negative opinion, request or requirement.

This postulate is based on a thesis (1), Max Weber, who had represented in the value-judgment dispute:

"An empirical science can teach anyone what he should'''', but only what he can''' 'and - what is often stated he wants to''''."( 2)

The ideal of neutrality

The principle of neutrality in the empirical sciences as a requirement - also or at least implicitly assumed to be the ideal standard by holding for the acceptance or rejection of a fact, hypothesis or theory alone, the relevant facts or empirical data, but not the value judgments of the scientist or other person for decisive.

was coined Historically this view in the British empiricism, notably through David Hume's ban on a fallacy of being again. (3) Then it is basically impossible to conclude logically from descriptive statements on value judgments. Scientific theories are to describe and explain facts in the world and for these purposes are irrelevant after Weber's view, value judgments. To answer the question "What is the case in the world? "is an answer to the question" What should be the case in the world? "irrelevant.

Even Weber's value freedom principle applies in principle to the confusion of being and Sollensbehauptungen. (4) For such is a kind of deception that is often used to persuade others (5).

value judgments and property claim from each other linguistically distinct?

language Logical analysis, like those of Theodor Geiger and Hans Albert as Max Weber predicted that it was carried out by linguistic means, factual claims and opinions about what is desirable for or held ablehnenswert is to strictly separate. follow

To the ideal of neutrality in practice, however, is only required that meant to be and can be separated in language and thought:

"It must be possible to statements of fact and judgmental opinions''to distinguish linguistically''otherwise. is the demand in principle unrealizable and thus done, if one the principle that ought implies can 'does not accept. " (6)

For opponents of Weber's thesis, however, satisfies the thesis of the linguistic and logical Ununterscheidbarbarkeit of value judgments and property, claim the role of an auxiliary argument. (7) For example, is run by John Searle (8), the distinctness denied, or at least considered irrelevant.

The thesis of the value of freedom is the philosophy of science in the 20th Century also have been criticized by other positions. Thus, with reference to experiences from the history of science and sociology of knowledge often argued that the science is not only''de facto''are permeated by value judgments, but that can science do not even think differently as a value-loaded. (9) The standards of scientific evaluation and the scientific methods are always shaped by a cultural context, which in turn itself contains value judgments.

Other arguments against the thesis of ethical language are motivated more philosophical. Sun represents Hilary Putnam, the thesis that many essential concepts of the sciences are both descriptive and evaluative. (10)

and basis of value judgments

Desktop Max Weber's thesis is ultimately his belief that value judgments are not scientifically definitively established or proven can be. Empirical science can not preach "moral truths" and scientifically justified, what is ethically or morally right.

This question, although it is closely in Weber's conception, with its postulate of value freedom, but, logically and considered in itself an independent Problem. It must not be confounded with the decision as to whether the claim of value neutrality in empirical science can be met or that it should.

Notes:

(1) Herbert Keuth:''science and value judgments. To Value Dispute and positivists had to ride.''Mohr Siebeck, 1989, ISBN 3-16-345452-6. P. 16, referring to Hans Albert and Gerard Radnitzky who had also been based on this classic Weber-quote.

(2) Max Weber:''The 'objectivity' of social science and social policy''in knowledge.''Collected Essays on the Theory of Science'', ed. v. Johannes Winckelmann, Tübingen 1988th ISBN 3-8252-1492-3. S151, and in:''writings on science teaching'', Reclam, Stuttgart 1991st ISBN 3-15-008748-1. <

(3) David Hume:''A Treatise of Human Nature''(English''A Treatise of Human Nature .''), Meiner, Hamburg 1989th ISBN 978-3-7873-0921-4. (Book III, Part I, Section I.).

(4) Herbert Keuth:''science and value judgments. To Value Dispute and positivists must ride''JCB Mohr (Paul Siebeck). Tübingen 1989th ISBN 3-16-345453-4. P. 18f.

(5) Herbert Keuth:''science and value judgments. To Value Dispute and positivists must ride''JCB Mohr (Paul Siebeck). Tübingen 1989th ISBN 3-16-345453-4. P. 10

(6) Herbert Keuth:''science and value judgments. To Value Dispute and positivists must ride''Mohr Siebeck. Tübingen 1989th ISBN 3-16-345452-6. P. 19

(7) Herbert Keuth:''science and value judgments. To Value Dispute and positivists must ride''JCB Mohr (Paul Siebeck). Tübingen 1989th ISBN 3-16-345453-4. P. 4

(8) "value judgments", in: Wolfgang J. Koschnik,''Standard Dictionary of the Social Sciences'', Vol 2, Munich, London New York Paris 1993, ISBN 3-598-11080-4.

(9) such as Paul Feyerabend: Against Method''''Frankfurt am Main, Suhrkamp, 1975, ISBN 3-518-28197-6, S.84ff..

(10) Hilary Putnam]]:''The Collapse of the Fact / Value Dichotomy and Other Essays.'' Harvard University Press, Harvard 2004th ISBN 0674013808th

== ==
literature
* Max Weber:''The 'objectivity' of social science and Social Policy'', in:''Collected Essays on the Theory of Science'', ed. v. [[Johannes Winckelmann]], Tübingen 1988th ISBN 3-8252-1492-3; and in:''writings on science teaching'', Reclam, Stuttgart 1991st ISBN 3-15-008748-1

* Max Weber:''The sense of "ethical neutrality" of the sociological and economic sciences''(1917), in id:''Collected Essays on the theory of science.''Tübingen 1988 (first 1922), 489-540.

* Hans Albert / Topitsch Ernst, (eds.).''Value judgments''armed Darmstadt 1971st

* Ulrich Beck:''objectivity and normativity. The theory-practice debate in the modern German and American sociology.''Reinbek 1974th

* Hilary Putnam:''The Collapse of the Fact / Value Dichotomy and Other Essays.'' Harvard University Press, Harvard 2004 ISBN 0674013808th
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5) Which method should be compared?



After answering the question (3) with respect to the criteria of theory assessment for selected according to meta-theoretical paradigm different evaluation criteria are selected, we will therefore apply in accordance with the chosen metatheory a peculiar method of how we organize the theory compared effectively and perform

Just as it is none the less legitimate to design paradigm comprehensive evaluation criteria, one can take the test, a possible universal developing method.

below are a few indications this would be to:

1) The multi-paradigmatic structure of the metatheory and the theories within the social sciences in our time should be worked out as a correspondingly wide variety of available theoretical and metatheoretical Options that present themselves as reference points of self-and mutual criticism.

2) This involves the selection, identification and development of a specific meta-theory and two specific theories and theoretical approaches on the basis of the same.

3) The development of the chosen meta-theory must also be the explication of the criteria of theory evaluation, and include

fourth) of the process that will decide in which of the acceptance of a theory.

5) T and T 'must be reconstructed, that the theory elements supported under the Linderberg / Wippler model with different logical functions account is.

6) There must be rules for translation T 'to T and vice versa to be developed. to translate into a supposedly "independent approach" language, as proposed by Matthes (1978, p. 15) appears, however hopeless. For such a medium does not exist. The "asymmetric" translatability is the only open road that continues.

7) can be applied equally to both the criteria of (3) and

8) the decision procedure according to (4) After production of the "commensurability" between T and T 'according to the translation supplied.

9) Finally, heuristic Methods used, such as the modification of the independent and dependent variables of T and T '(see Opp 1978, p. 216 ff) to the quintessence of step (7) and (8) T progressively transform.

Matthes (1978, p. 16) rightly criticizes certainly that often, hypotheses and concepts that could translate not assimilate of T 'in T and lightly discarded as useless.

A progressive strategy would include T to alter the extent that a translation as possible of all elements of T may instead have '.

---
literature

Giesen and Schmid 1978: Bernard Giesen, Michael Schmid, Methodological models and sociological theories , in: Hondrich / Matthes 1978, p. 232-254.

Hondrich / Matthes 1978: Karl Otto Hondrich, Joachim Matthes (ed.), comparison theory in the social sciences , Darmstadt Neuwied 1978th

Lindenberg / Wippler 1978: Siegwart Lindenberg, Reinhard Wippler, comparison theory: elements of the reconstruction , in: Hondrich / Matthes 1978, p. 219-231.

Matthes 1978: Joachim Matthes, The discussion of the theory of comparison since the Kassel Sociological 1974, in: Hondrich / Matthes 1978, p. 7-20.

Opp 1978: Karl-Dieter Opp, problems and strategies of the theory of comparative , In: Hondrich / Matthes 1978, p. 213-218.

Spinner 1972: Helmut F. Spinner, pluralism as a model of knowledge , Frankfurt / M. 1974th

Wippler 1978: Reinhard Wippler, the explanatory theories The development of theoretical approaches, in: Hondrich / Matthes 1978, p. 196-212.

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4th What is to be compared?



This brings us to two very different questions:

4.1 What theories or theoretical approaches into the circle to the consideration to be moved?

4.2 What elements of theories and a theoretical approach to be compared?

4.1 What are the theories and theoretical approaches will be brought into the circle of observation?

It is about the question of how qualified a theory to be taken from us too seriously, which means that it happens to the grace to be respected and accepted within our debate for now at least once as a potentially serious argument.

Opp (1978, p. 215) proposes a methodological maxim to select those theories for comparison, which are judged to solve a specific problem of knowledge as the most fertile. This, however, even the selection of a particular problem as primarily relevant advance.

problems are, in turn, however, already written in theoretical terms, so that the relevance of theories by selecting a specific problem formulation more or less be prejudged already is.

You have to see here clearly that it is ultimately about the political issue of setting research priorities. Here, both internal scientific and external goals, such as scientific considerations play a role.

In this sense "internal" priority decisions are taken based on the objective of finding the truth. It is chosen according to the criterion of the problems with regard to the truth or strategic information gathering of particular importance and urgency are therefore resolved. Certain issues are more important than others to answer because the answer they provide access to an even greater amount of intelligence as a relatively others. This argument is common, where it concerns the promotion of basic research.

External priorities for problems to be introduced into the science if science is not operated for its own sake. Here it is then only once to clarify the issue upstream:

Who has the power of the researcher's work?

He himself? The company? Who is "society", however, in each case the present specific case?

called for here is essentially a political theory of democracy, what criteria value and relevance considerations can provide in order to measure this, the current situation of social sub-system science. Included should be an assessment of each case and given the desired interactions between science and society. How to participate in society and representatives of social groups to which the relevant decision-making would be one of the key questions that would answer such a political and normative theory. The use of explicit value judgments would be formulated in this research policy Discussion circumvent absolutely not to realize the greatest possible transparency also very important. For a rational use of value judgments will thus allows most appropriate that one of its normative character by explicit wording clearly identifiable, and even out-versa - a powerful medicine against any suspicion of ideology! A society that sees itself as a democracy should lead the discussion on the priorities of national and international research policy in the broadest possible public, which means above all in the mass media and in the intermediate groups such as political parties and trade unions). It is first and foremost by an information and accountability of those likely that the ruling powers have held the national research resources. In this public debate, the relevance criteria of responsible decision-makers would be to designate clearly. In this context, it must further be possible also to the individual scientist to his personal labor and right to self-realization, it is finally so well to articulate its interests and exercise a right of participation in the research policy of his country.

These authors hold the view is just one among many possible political positions. What matters here: The scientific theory must assume it, that will be unavoidable in the decision on the selection of research problems such positions to bear. Fact, one can not help to define methods such as this can go with a high degree of rational argument CARRIED. The real possibility of such a process solution to deny would be to close our eyes to the normative force of facts, namely, before the real vorfindbaren use of science by the holders of social power positions on the one hand and the at least implicit use of political value judgments by only ostensibly apolitical only scientists.

4.2 What elements of a theory or theoretical approach to be compared?

First is meant the difference between "theory" and "theoretical" approach to be clarified. "Theoretical" approach is as a precursor of the elaborate and developed form of a theory to understand.

"As a 'theoretical approaches' will be referred to the prospects that will work from which the empirical and theoretical sociology, they focus attention on a particular class of objects and features, in the course of the theory as to explain, problems, or as explanatory assumptions are used. " (Wippler 1978, p. 197)

a core component of such theoretical approaches are the so-called orientation hypothesis n dar.

Such a universal component with an existential component is connected (Watkinsche All-Some-Statements). They are thus neither verifiable nor falsifiable in the strict sense, therefore, that is metaphysically (p. 199 f). Are you still a realistic setting, where they focus the research on which empirical objects need to be explained or can be used as the starting point of explanation.

It is debatable whether its heuristic function must be confined to the early stages of theory formation. Or whether, in its concept and hypothesis-generating function of the fundamental background of a broader theory determined able to deliver. A background to the exploit it, the theoretical hypotheses and testing must constantly return.

theories and theoretical approaches to form a logical whole of knowledge, which consists of many more or less qualified part consists findings, which are incorporated in the individual components. Therefore, all raised to explain the facts of social action and process data are taken into account in social collectives theory required elements for a theory of comparison (Lindenberg / Wippler 1979, p. 227).

It was the variety of possible different parts of a combined theory Deduktionsmodell demonstrated. This scheme is to be regarded only as a basic pattern of exposure of the individual elements of a declaration of individual and collective effects of social action. It is not misread as a research strategic directive to go to just this one statement from the individual to the collective direction. This is by no means a precedent for the psychological Reduktionalismus given, even if at first glance, this could easily be construed.

From the Lindenberg / Wippler model has the following components of a theoretical explanation of social processes:

a) propositions about individuals;

b) initial conditions;

c) correspondence rules;

d) idealized or concrete descriptions of social situations;

e) transformation rules;

f) boundary conditions;

g) individual effects;

h) collective events and processes.

For further clarification:

agent correspondence rules situation descriptions are translated into the language of theoretical propositions about individuals.

transformation rules to specify how individual can be converted to collective propositions. You can represent partial definitions ("partial" because the definiendum can not be replaced throughout by the Definiens), Implikationsaussagen or mathematical models (p. 222 et seq.)

Nor should the distinction between initial conditions and conditions are respected; initial conditions are observation language formulated conditions in the theory of language, the former exert their function in the derivation of individual, the latter in the derivation of collective effects ( p. 230).

Based on this model can identify the specific deficiencies and merits of different theoretical paradigms and explain further. Also arise out of it heuristic variations, herauszuschälen to the fertile eclecticism, the positive elements of different theoretical approaches and to combine them.

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Hondrich / Matthes 1978: Karl Otto Hondrich, Joachim Matthes (ed.), comparison theory in the social sciences , Darmstadt Neuwied 1978th

Opp 1978: Karl-Dieter Opp, problems and strategies of the theory of comparative , in: Hondrich / Matthes 1978, p. 213-218.

Wippler 1978: Reinhard Wippler, the explanatory theories The development of theoretical approaches, in: Hondrich / Matthes 1978, p. 196-212.

Lindenberg / Wippler 1978: Siegwart Lindenberg, Reinhard Wippler, comparison theory: elements of the reconstruction , in: Hondrich / Matthes 1978, p. 219-231.

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3) In terms of theories which criteria should be evaluated and the outcome of their relative performance?



The inadequacy of existing theory comparisons is motivated by the fact that diverge as a rule already established metatheories or are controversial. As a direct consequence that the criteria and the methodology for theory comparison is not the same and so are highly controversial.

The methodological situation is not much better on the other hand, if the previously used metatheories nothing or little to offer on the methodology of a theoretical comparison on its own or even give away.

Typically, went so far theory comparison in this asymmetric way (Matthes 1978, p. 16):

The critics will always own the meta position as unquestionably true starting point.

T 'is then translated into the language of T. Here are deficits, made of rare virtues of T 'to T pin down.

If T 'is a distinct meta-theory of M M' subject is also measured T 'to the supplier M performance criteria and problem scales.

This asymmetric method of theoretical criticism is readily apparent with the roles reversed reversible.

The so criticized theorists of T 'can the same means M 't do to the theory.

is the end, such an event is natural to ask:

* Who is the winner or loser?
* Which theory has more benefits that more defects?

Since the evaluation criteria differ in this performance comparison, admittedly, the question seems not so easily answerable.

Appropriate evaluation criteria can come from nowhere but a metatheory her! It must also be viewed and recognized that the principle of competition of theories and the methodology of analog theory pluralism in way at the level of metatheoretical paradigms must be applied.

It thus three situations are possible: first

T and T 'have the same meta-theory M for the joint condition.

second T and T 'and share with each other competing metatheories M and M' advance, being on the preference of M or M is not 'decided.

third T and T 'and share with each other competing metatheories M and M' advance, we believe, for a given point X, there are enough reasons to decide on the alternative preferred by M or M '.

The case (1) is trivial in so far as the explication of the criteria consistent inter theory test can be made from einundderselben metatheory out. The criteria for the adequacy of problem solving are given with this meta-theory and depend only on their level of development and preparation level.

case (3) is traceable to develop the required decision-making process and under the condition of case (1).

The most difficult and in reality probably the most common case would no be (2). Now it would be

certainly wrong to think that the objective of maximizing criticism in theory competition make it essential to the truth by a knock-out process of total elimination of the once falsified theories (so-Opp 1978, p. 213) to converge.

As not only the truth but also the falsity of an empirical theory (and much less that of a fragmentary theory approach) is never absolute and can be proved once and for all means total elimination of a false deemed theory nothing more than a certain potentially critical Instance forever excluded from the game.

The methodologically correct alternative can only be to try to try to reinforce the "falsified" theory, that is to strive to develop them fertile. (In general, this is not a critic as his personal task view, but the defender the criticized position. But it concerns us here is not zuzuschendien a methodology to certain persons or categories of role, but a methodology for science in general.).

This, however, we come to the question of criteria of theory evaluation and decision process on the admission of theories on competition.

However, since we, as we have just noted, not the goal of elimination of any theory T, T ', ... and are required of any candidate from this series (unless, for practical reasons or constraints), we are also not forced, between M and M 'to decide once and for all. We can

thus devise a method of theory testing, with successive T and T 'together, M with M' with M and T 'and T' must be confronted with M.

Schematically, we represent our model as follows:

M0, M1, M2, ...
T0, T1, T2, ...

M'0, M'1, M'2, ...
T'0, T'1, T'2 ...


The mutual confrontation of metatheory and their critical review of each other and at other inspection bodies from M0 M1 and the new version of its counterpart M'0 M'1 the new version.

The process of mutual criticism theory by integrating the respective metatheories For example, according to the following sequence pattern:

T0 is confronted with in accordance with M0 and M1 T'0.

receive from this process known as preliminary results, both T1 and T'1. This process occurs

in place a permanent revisionism alternative eliminative competition oriented and Managed theories, or theoretical paradigms. Also included in these revisionism always involved and the relevant meta-theoretical foundations and possibly mitrevidiert. This is also much different, for theoretical discussion without metatheoretical consideration is virtually impossible. Only occasionally are such considerations can, within certain limits exclude in a debate.

You just can the truth notice of theories, not by consensus or by majority vote, such as the discourse participants. Towards a better theory is not through avoiding epistemological controversies (Matthes 1978, p. 17), but on their discharge in an explicit and transparent procedures. And that is the object of the theory of comparative methodology in conjunction with the program of theoretical pluralism straight.

The "current confrontational discussion of established theories" (p. 13) is mostly why are not fruitful, real confrontation of theories, because it suffers from the applied self-representation, delimitation and dimming strategies of the respective representatives who instinctively in self-defense, to be mobilized but also to immunize against the criticism by alternatives that often.

One could of course try to object to the scheme exposed above the permanent revisionism, it falls short of the self-set goal to formulate a methodology of criticism maximization, trace it so far nothing more than the typical flow of inter-writable empirically theoretical influence patterns. Accordingly, there was the description set out means nothing beyond the obvious criteria for the optimization of this process of cognitive processes can be. Or to make advances in knowledge actually measured.

Even if the main power of this model only would be written on a systematic and orientation, it is estimated to be quite substantial, especially given the rather could muddled debate on the situation on the subject of comparison theory, which can be characterized as probably dominated by ambiguity. Moreover, there are already through the system but this model almost by itself is relatively clear-cut gaps and areas of responsibility for filling or editing. This is probably not more than what one might expect from a schema.

theory comparison is taken here not merely as a means of theory testing (pp. 7), but as the method of the theory test itself that the discussion during the transition from theory comparison the theory test already ending proves that the previous discussion was not more than a non-binding preliminary skirmishing.

A blurry picture of the theory of comparative methodology as such adjusted affected the view on the way forward and that each judge adequately achieved.

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Hondrich / Matthes 1978: Karl Otto Hondrich, Joachim Matthes (ed.), comparison theory in the social sciences , Darmstadt Neuwied 1978th

Matthes 1978: Joachim Matthes, The discussion of the theory of comparison since the Kassel Sociological 1974, in: Hondrich / Matthes 1978, p. 7-20.

Opp 1978: Karl-Dieter Opp, Problems and strategies of the theory of comparative , in: Hondrich / Matthes 1978, p. 213-218.

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